The reduced need for traditionally trained and educated personnel in the mining industry is systemic to the changing mining industry. Universities and other training institutions are meeting the traditional skill needs required by the industry, but are the skill needs going to be the same in the near future?
The answer may be no.
Mining is changing because of increased liabilities and costs of environmental and safety issues; lower grades of minerals in traditional mining activities and the advent of new bio-chemical processes and robotic equipment. More productive and economic alternatives, and larger, more sophisticated and automatic equipment, are also changing the industry. Engineering is more specific, accurate, precise and expensive. Measurement is more thorough and timely of progress, production, costs and productivity. And, the industry will likely be engaging in more undersea mining, possibly space-based processing, less human interaction and more remote control of events than was previously thought possible.
Transformation
The author's experience of this transformation was with the Bechtel Mining and Metals Division during the 1970s and 198Us. Computer-aided drafting (CAD) was a research activity in the 1970s and, in 1982, an Intergraph-based work-station was introduced to the company. It ran with a VAX system on a DEC machine. It was fascinating, but only a few senior engineers were allowed anywhere near the machine. In late 1984, the Australian office installed a Computervision workstation that ran on a prime computer. Its three screens and electronic pen were mezmerizing. Everyone on the engineering floor crowded around the workstation, fascinated with this technology.
In the early 1980s, IBM shipped its first personal computer (PC), and Autodesk issued its first software about the same time. However, the PC could not handle complicated drawings, and mini-computers, at the very least, were needed as CAD became a greater part of the engineering process. As the decade progressed and the XT was introduced, greater use was made of the computer in engineering. T-I connections began transferring files, first locally and, ultimately, internationally for drafting and detailing. Ail the while, there were fewer and fewer engineers and drafting personnel on the engineering floor.
In the late 1980s, the mine engineering business collapsed. The workload diminished significantly and mining engineering work became limited. Many people transferred or were laid off. A library of drawings and specification that had been built up over 30 years was gutted. However, with the introduction of the Pentium chip, and larger internal memories, the storage of experience would be transformed. In the mid-1990s, the mini-computer based systems became too expensive against the advancement of PC operating systems. Computervision and Intergraph drifted into the background and Autodesk and many of its imitators became more prominent. And the number of people needed to do engineering became fewer and fewer. Finally, in the late 1990s and into this century, the transformation has virtually become the norm.
PCs now dominate the engineering floor and one engineer now does the work that 30 did less than 20 years ago. In addition to CAD, multiple systems incorporate product data management (PDM), product lifecycle management (PLM) and Internet-enabled three-dimensional (3D) modeling. The old libraries are now digitized.
Transformation of mining
The mining industry is in transformation. It appears to be a systemic change that began in the mid-1990s and is gaining steam. The transformation is becoming apparent, and the next 10 years will completely change the mining industry as significantly as the 25-year transformation of the engineering industry. Some of the changes that will befall how mines are managed include the increased use of planning parameters, metrics, the control of machine use and maintenance, and mine financing.
The industry is beginning to see a dramatic increase in the application of robotics and automation. It has not been an easy application. Efforts in this area began in the mid-1990s. A senior researcher at the Australian University of Queensland experimental mine had this to say: "The success of automation applications in the mining industry has traditionally not been good." He concluded that the benefits of automation had been overstated and sold as definitive solutions for increasing safety and productivity. But many of the applications had been introduced prematurely, without appropriate field testing to ensure they would work under the rigors of the mining physical environment. But most importantly, the culture of the mine was not ready for what was required to make an automated system work. He came to these conclusions in 2001 (Lever, 2001).
Mining machines
In its brochure, "Longwall Automation: State of the Art - Creating the Manless Longwall," Joy Mining Machinery states that progress will occur from today to the future in this manner. The introduction of advanced automation to the optimized cutting cycle leads to higher production. This will progress to one worker per coalface to minimize people on the face. Teleremote operation of all machinery at the face will follow and finally, the ultimate implementation of a workerless face, with all people out of harm's way.
What does this longwall system of the not-toodistant future have beyond the shearer, roof support and conveyors? It will need fiberoptics to the shearer, Wi-Fi on the longwall and broadband frequencies and speeds. It will result in a fully automated shearer and roof supports, cameras on the shearer, remote monitoring and remote control of the operation, higher productivity, no person on the face, automatic face alignment (Schaeffer).
Productivity and safety
Safety. Safety is still very much an issue in mining, especially in underground coal mining. The U.S. experienced a significant disaster in 2010, when an explosion at Massey's Upper Big Branch Mine killed 29 miners. In the last decade, more than 3,500 miners have lost their lives. Fully 70 percent of these deaths occurred in China coal mines, most of which use longwall technology. Removing people from the face will improve safety (Wapedia.mobi).
Productivity. John Steele, from the Colorado School of Mines, stated that overall mining automation could result in significant cost savings. For example, travel time to and from the surface can take hours, reducing productive work by as much as 50 percent in a typical eight- or 12-hour shift. Automation, particularly remote operation, of mining equipment could double productivity. There also seems to be additional benefits to a decreased number of workers in the mine. Such change might include the elimination of large, power-hungry fans that control the flow of air through the mines. If miners were no longer underground, such an expense could be eliminated (DeGaspari, 2003).
But why is automation achieving success now, when 15 years ago there was difficulty and sometimes failure? The industry is capitalizing on two developments in recent years that have dovetailed to make automation and teleoperation in mines more feasible. The first is the ability to construct a robust communication backbone in the mine, capable of handling data, voice and video signals. The second is the development of "smart" mining equipment, outfitted with on-board computers and a host of sensors.
Having better communications networks, comprising cable and wireless, is a key development that opened the door to automation, robotics and teleoperated mining. Bandwidth may be a somewhat limited commodity in surface mines, but the full radio frequency spectrum is available underground. And there will be a rapid increase in teleoperation underground with the new and automated drills, LHD 's, driverless trains and other equipment. Sweden, Canada and Australia are in the forefront of this transition to automation. Inco has been involved for more than 15 years, similarly for Kinraa Iron Ore in Sweden and Rio Tinto's Pilbara Mine.
The new "smart" LHD or drill might be outfitted with as many as 150 sensors of one type or another. These include sensors to measure hydraulic or engine pressure, air pressure sensors on tires, and accelerometers to sense rocks lying in the vehicle's path. Additionally, they may have stereo vision for a three-dimensional view of the mining area and the machine itself (DeGaspari, 2003).
Professor Hugh Durrant-Whyte's vision of the future in mining is that there were unmanned trucks communicating not only with a control room but with each other. Together, with a controller, they will be deciding which haulroad to take. Additionally, there will be automated drill rigs sending drilling rate data directly to the mine database and then out to the 3D models used by robotic shovels for grade control.
Durrant-Whyte is one of the world's leading researchers into large field robots and the director of the Rio Tinto Center for Mine Automation.
However, the culture issue is yet to be addressed. Durrant-Whyte believes that the industry needs to concentrate not just on how to automate individual trucks or drills, but how to automate the entire mine. This will involve change in the way mining business models are developed, and information systems with automated equipment will achieve the goals of the model (DeGaspari, 2003).
Automation unfolds the future
Mine equipment Atlas Copeo has developed and deployed automation technology that currently exists in many mines. It has developed production-grade computerized control and guidance systems on large underground drill rigs for remote control and satellite hole navigation systems for surface crawler rigs. It has advanced automatic bit changers, automatic tunnel profiling systems and measurement while drilling that provides for the logging of rock strata characteristics using the rock drill as a sensor (Eggert, 2003).
Other traditional manufacturers have also advanced in the automation and robotics area. Caterpillar is in the process of automating its largest hauling trucks, but it is not the first on this track. Japan-based Komatsu already runs automated trucks at the Gaby Mine in Chile and Rio Tinto's Pilbara Mine in Australia. The Caterpillar trucks will be equipped with numerous high-tech gadgets and software to keep them on the road. GPS receivers continuously monitor the location and direction of the trucks. Laser range finders sweep the road in front of the trucks to identify large objects. Video equipment determines if the object is a hazard or not. The information runs through a computer program that tells the robotic driver to avoid the obstacle or not and by how much.
Interestingly, the software to run the trucks is adapted from Carnegie Mellon University work done for Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The university participated hi a competition that required unmanned vehicles equipped with sensors and artificial intelligence systems to navigate through an urban environment filled with obstacles.
Plant equipment
Increasing automation is also affecting metallurgical plants. Advancements are occurring both in physical plant monitoring and control as well as metallurgical/chemical processes. A smaller Australian company offers an on-belt natural gamma minerals monitor that provides real time ore quality, feedback to mining faces on waste and contamination, and product quality to ensure plant operation is optimized. It does this by measuring the natural radiation from ores and concentrates, isolating trace amounts of metals that may affect the treatment of the ore, such as potassium, thorium and uranium, to name a few (Scantech).
Several companies offer plant wear debris analysis and monitoring for rotating plant equipment.
Continuous oil condition monitoring of machinery and lubricant testing is becoming an established method of predicting and avoiding impending machinery breakdown. Lost production and expensive capital equipment replacement are major costs associated with any catastrophic failure of machinery, the prevention of which is crucial for optimal operational performance (Fitch). The use of laser scanning is now available to monitor grinding mills by providing unique wear detection, monitoring and predictive intelligence (Cooperative Research Centers).
Biohydrometallurgy has been actively pursued by the industry for more than 60 years, contributing significantly to the extracted metal that is available to the market. Yet, with the advent of bioreactors, the future may, in fact, be even more promising. Gold biooxidation operations are increasing in number and size in several countries in the world. The use of reactors will probably extend to the bioleaching of other metals. Currently activities are occurring and success is being achieved in the bioleaching of copper concentrates. The bioleaching of chalcopyritic copper concentrates in the next few years will constitute a breakthrough in bi�mining. Further, the application of these technologies to the processing of nickel, zinc and other heavy metals may also become a reality in the near future (Acevedo,2000).
Systems and information
Operational systems. Data generation, planning, measuring, monitoring, execution and data collection is the backbone of managing the modern mining operation. The amount of data is enormous and growing, and its manipulation and reporting has matured significantly during the last 25 years, Some mining companies have developed their own proprietary systems. But with the maturation of the industry in this area, several smaller and more robust consulting organizations offer exceptional information systems that organize planning information and effectively present results against a plan. An example of such a firm is Mintec of Phoenix, AZ. Its "Minesight" program is an example of the integrated information systems entering the industry. There are several vendors of similar software that not only fully integrate systems, but also provide individual "plug-and-play modules," or as they wish to call it, "solutions." Many of them have similar capabilities, such as Genicom Software International in Canada.
The Minesight systems provides:
* The complete functionality to build and manage 3D block, stratigraphie and surface models. Drillhole, blasthole and other sample data are stored and the system provides for filtering, importing, exporting, formatting, reporting and editing. There is seamless movement of information from the beginning stages of sxpiomtion to the final days of grade control.
* The design function provides CAD-based design with all the interactive tools needed to create and manage an operation. Tools for blast pattern design, end-ofperiod maps, economic and ultimate pit shells, life-of-mine and phase scheduling, road/ramp design, and complete dump, spoil and dyke design give openpit engineers comprehensive tools for surface operations. With extensive underground layout and design tools, drift and stope design is simple to perform while maintaining extensive functionality.
* Long-term planning function allows engineering to create, manage and analyze the unique scenarios and ever-changing possibilities of a mine plan, from exploration to feasibility analysis. It allows for the plan to incorporate equipment requirements, multiple stockpile and leachpad handling, and other quality, quantity and ratio constraints.
* Short-term planning function includes cut design and reserve calculations combined with powerful tools for scheduling, optimization, equipment planning and haulage. Interactive planning and haulage tools, powered by a centralized planning database, are available for on-the-fly reserve calculations, while creating material/routing reports, route profiles and cycle time files.
* The production function facilitates drilland-blast design, day-to-day grade control, in-mine production management and reconciliation of production data. It leverages the versatile power of a centralized planning database, tying back into geomodelling, design and planning functions.
So what is needed to run such a program? Microsoft XP, Vista or 7 operating system. A Dualcore processor, 3 GB of RAM and a 300GB harddisk. This is about what one would buy for a home computer today.
Maintenance systems
During the 1980s, Mincom Pty Ltd. developed a mini-computer-based maintenance system and was marketing it first locally, and later in the United States. Today, it has one of the pre-eminent maintenance and inventory control systems available with its Ellipse Application. This system provides a good example of the maintenance management software that is available and exists at many of the larger mines around the world. It incorporates a comprehensive asset (equipment) database, equipment operational data, preventive maintenance information and check points, repair and maintenance schedules and procedures, workforce planning, inventory control including supply chain management, and financial data collection and control. It is comprehensive and can be implemented in a modular plug-and-play manner.
Proceed with caution
Before identifying some mines that are actively introducing automation, some somber observations are offered: "Automation should not be viewed as a solution in itself and failures have occurred due to limited preparation of the employees and community, as well as a lack of management commitment to the long-term implementation cycle. By its very nature, automation means a fundamental change in how the overall mining process will operate. As such, the change is dramatic and can be traumatic. In 1998, Inco's Sudbury LHD and Drilling Automation program was withdrawn because of insufficient teamwork across the organization, between internal research and development groups with divergent philosophies, and a lack of support from the head office. Studies are now being done to assure the success of autonomous mining by focusing on the integration of people, technology and process" (Mottola, et al., 2009).
Mines using automation
In 2005, the DeBeers Finsch Mine (a diamond mine in South Africa), installed seven Toro 50D (T50D) automated dump trucks and one Toro 007 semi-automatic LHD to transport ore to an underground crusher. Since its installation, the trucks have successfully navigated the haulage loop without any failures. The trucks operate at 25 km/h (16 mph), which is faster than a manually operated truck. With no time lost for driver change over at shift, the system allows Finsch to move about 16 kt/d (17,600 stpd) of ore, compared to about 15 kt/d (16,500 stpd) for manual operation. The economic value of the system is also improved, due to reduced truck maintenance costs, since the equipment is more consistently used and better managed under computer control. Accidents due to human error and poor driving habits have been eliminated (Krai, 2008).
The Zhangji Mine, a coal operation located in China, has installed automation equipment to decrease environmental accidents and maximize environmental management. The production and environmental monitoring information is collected synchronously and incorporated into production statistics and environmental management systems. The mine uses an ethernet network for its system, which conducts real-time monitoring, transmitting relevant data to a server, and then seamlessly uploading it to the management system. This provides the mine with integrated information to ensure that no environmental hazards arise as a result of the operation. The centralized monitoring network collects all environmental information, such as gases, ventilation, temperature and other factors to ensure safety of personnel (Moxa Products, 2009).
In 2006, the Andina Mine, a large underground copper mine in Chile, began to integrate about 15 different automation systems that momtor and control equipment. This included fans, compressors, chutes, electric machines, dust suppressors, as well as large systems and networks for water, air, ventilation, vibration measurement and analysis, traffic lights and closed-circuit television. The data is gathered by an isolated automation system, operated from a control room 40 km (25 miles) from the mine. The idea is to make quantifiable improvements in key performance indicators, such as availability, reliability, energy efficiency, safety and security (ABB, 2006).
Underground mines are advancing quickly into the automation environment, with not only new equipment, but also fitting older equipment with new systems. Sandvik markets a system that allows remote operation and supervision of an automated underground loader or truck fleet from a surface control room. The autonomous fleet is operated in an area that is isolated from personnel and other equipment, greatly enhancing underground mine safety. Driving (tramming) and dumping are fully automated, while bucket loading is performed using teleremote operation. A single system operator is able to manage the operation of multiple automated machines. From the operator station, the system operator is able to plan and monitor production, operate machines teleremotely, view machine operation information such as alarms, measurements, gear selection, engine RPM and tramming speed. He or she can monitor and operate the barrier system, control and supervise a fleet of equipment and generate production and condition monitoring reports.
A range of Sandvik underground loaders and trucks can be fitted with the AutoMine onboard package. It includes a navigation system that continuously determines the location of the machine within the underground mine environment, and controls the autonomous tramming and dumping operations. The navigation system uses laser scanners to scan tunnel wall profiles to verify machine position. An onboard video system to provide the high-quality video necessary for teleremote operation and a wireless local area network (WLAN) mobile terminal to provide the radio link between the machine and the communication system installed in the autonomous production area (Sandvik).
At the Pilbara Mine, in Western Australia, Rio Tinto recently introduced Komatsu's FrontRunner Autonomous Haulage System. It started trials with driverless trains, five 320-t (352-st) trucks and at least one automated drill rig that are controlled from Perth, 1,300 km (808 miles) away. All truck navigation at the mine is remotely controlled. Rio Tinto is also experimenting with driverless iron ore trains that currently haul ore to ports as far as 450 km (280 miles) away. The trains and wagons are up to 2.4-km- (1.5-mile-) long, and it would be the first driverless heavy haul train system in the world (Moore, 2009).
Since December 2008, Rio Tinto has been operating automation technologies at a test site called "?-Pit," where its robotic trucks with artificial intelligence learn the layout of the mine and use sensors to sense and avoid obstacles. The shift to automation is not without its challenges, chief among them securing vast satellite networks against cyber-attacks. In the cyclone-prone and brutally hot Pilbara, the "?-Pit" trial will be completed in 2011. Its findings will form the basis for an operations-wide rollout of remote and driverless technologies. Chief executive Tom Albanese hopes to position Rio Tinto as the world's most technologically advanced mining company, describing it as key to the company's ambitions to boost annual iron ore production above 600 Mt (660 million st). "Rio Tinto is changing the face of mining," he said at the Mine of the Future's 2008 launch (Trounson, 2008).
What's next - how about underwater
In the 1970s, French, American and German companies had tried to mine manganese off the deep ocean seabed. The endeavor cost more than $700 million and, in the end, did not produce enough commercial nickel to make the venture worthwhile. However, technology has progressed significantly since the 1970s. Thanks to GPS and new stabilizing motors, ships are able to float over an exact point on the seabed. The oil and gas industries have propelled advances in remotely operated vehicles now able to view, dig and drill material at depths down to 2,400 m (8,000 ft).
At least two mining companies, Nautilus Minerals and Neptune Minerals, are staking out hundreds of thousands square miles around the islands of the South Pacific with the aim of exploiting dormant hydrothermals. Scientists have long known about remarkably pure concentrations of metals found near some of the hydrothermal vents, nicknamed "black smokers" because they resemble underwater chimneys.
Mineral deposits could range in size from 453 kt to 9.1 Mt (500,000 st to 10 million st) and contain high-grade base and precious metals with values ranging from: gold 2 to 20 g/t (0.05 to 0.6 oz/ st); silver 20 to 1,200 g/t (0.6 to 35 oz/st); copper 5 to 15 percent; zinc 5 to 50 percent; lead 3 to 23 percent. Estimated contained metal values range from US$453 to 1,800/t ($500 to 2,000/st) (Davis, 2007).
Money and financing
Mineral exploration and mine development have been traditionally funded during the last two centuries in very familiar ways, usually either equity financing or debt financing, and usually a combination of both. In the early stages, it takes the form of private placement, issuance of stock, selling of bonds and, if the enterprise is moderately successful, some sort of initial public offering on a stock exchange. Most in the industry are familiar with the penny stocks and their use to fund earlystage drilling programs. "On exchange" financing requires reporting standards, such as resource and reserve estimates and approved accounting documentation, that "off exchange" transactions do not require. But "off-exchange" transactions are not easy, and often one is dealing with more sophisticated investors in such arrangements as private placements, venture capital, joint ventures and royalty-based financing.
The mine of the future will require an even larger capital investment than what has been experienced in the past. In the 1990s, a $500~million capitalization was considered major. Today, a commercial mine will require in excess of a billion dollars and will require the reserves and management talent to warrant such a project. Mining is neither unfamiliar with major investment nor financing from New York, London and other money centers. The Hearst Castle, the Guggenheim Museum and Rhodes Scholarships are all the resuit of wealth gained from this industry. In the last 20 years, national governments have become major players in the financing of developments. At one time, their contribution was in kind, such as land, infrastructure, personnel and permitting. Today, they often pro-offer some cash contribution to the enterprise, often borrowed from an international financing entity. However, the country's ownership of the mine industrial complex is much greater, and often includes an equity position in the mining company sponsoring the development. Other financial players are becoming more important (Eggert, 2010).
Some new entrants are making their way into mine financing. For example, Bellzone Mining in Guinea, West Africa, the developer of the KaHa iron ore and copper/nickel complex, will be receiving funding from the China International Fund to develop a $2.7-billion rail and port facility. This is a China-sponsored fund based in Hong Kong and started in 2004. Its stated goals include sharing experiences and achievements of China's economic reforms with developing countries and to explore a new framework for Chinese enterprises to expand overseas (MineWeb.com).
Another example is General MoIy, a familiar molybdenum deposit in northern Nevada. It has obtained funds from both the sale of stock and creating a joint venture with Poseo, a Korean steel company and the world's fourth largest steel producer, and a major buyer of the metal. Recently, it privately placed and sold 25 percent of its stock to the Hanlong Group, a private investment company in Sichuan, China. In addition to the stock, the group will procure a sizable loan from a Chinese bank to develop the mine project (General MoIy).
Conclusions
This article was written from the perspective of a recruiter of talent for the mining industry with the attempt to bring forth examples of the changes the industry is experiencing, and allows the reader to speculate about the new skills and combination of skills that will be needed by mining in the next 20 years.
It seems apparent that the mining industry is experiencing a transition toward being more automated and system- and machinery-driven in order to achieve efficiency, safety and environmental goals. The transition will accelerate as new technology becomes proven, practical and more economic. The resulting changes will affect not only the skills, but also the numbers employed in mining. Many older and, most smaller, mining operations will experience incremental changes, as they modernize equipment and upgrade information systems that better accumulate, consolidate and analyze data. These changes will increase productivity and reduce costs, but marginally affect how the mine is operated and the number of people needed to operate it.
However, new and large mining developments, where major deposits are being exploited over decades, will look entirely different to what has existed in the past. Geology through production will be fully integrated from planning through the operating phases over the life of the mine. Equipment and methods will be automated to an observable extent, relying less on human intervention and operators, particularly at the individual equipment level. How, when and who performs maintenance will change dramatically with much more plug-and-play of wear parts to be replaced on a schedule, automatic and timely lubrication and fueling of vehicles, and greater use of equipment manufacture specialists and consultants. Engineering and operational planning will be even more thorough and specific and will be used, not only to design the mine and develop the metallurgical processes, but also to detail the comprehensive information system, off mine location facilities and infrastructure.
The mining of large deposits, whether on land or from the sea or, for that matter, in outer space, will transition toward an even more sophisticated enterprise. There will be an impact on the "culture" of the industry, as the workforce becomes more technical and less manual in nature, the population becomes smaller and management and technical staff expands. The economic success of the mining facility will increasingly rely on the fully integrated planning and control of mining, processing, storing and transporting of finished product to market. Additionally, many responsible for activities on the property will physically be removed, and exercise their responsibilities through electronic communication and feedback mechanisms connected directly to the machinery and the systems that control them. The industry can expect that the measured productivity of an individual in the mining industry to increase by between 100 to 1,000 percent in the next 10 years (references are available from the author).
[Sidebar]
More than 15 different automated systems at the Andina copper mine in Chile (pictured) are controlled from a room located 25 miles (40 km) from the mine.
[Sidebar]
Longwall mining is transforming dramatically and could soon become a workerless face.
Remote control drilling has been instituted by several mining operations to improve safety and productivity.
[Sidebar]
The amount of data is enormous and growing and its manipulation and reporting has matured significantly during the last 25 years.
With no time lost for driver changeover shift, the system allows Finsch to move about 16 kt/d (17,600 stpd) of ore, compared to about 15 kt/d (16,500 stpd) for manual operation. The economic value of the system is also improved due to reduced truck maintenance costs, since tile equipment is more consistently used and better managed computer control.
[Sidebar]
The Komatsu 960 is remotely operated in Australia and Chile.
The metal content of smokers found underwater are estimated to have metal values of 17g/t(0.5oz/st) for gold, and up to 1,200 g/t (35 oz/st) for silver. Other base metals are measured in percentages such as up to 15 percent copper, up to 50 percent zink and 23 percent lead.
[Author Affiliation]
Lawrence Lien, member SME, is partner, Global Staffing Network, Novato, CA, e-mail: llien@msn.com.
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